Two Gentlemen of Verona and Why Is Sylvia Essay Example for Free

Two Gentlemen of Verona and Why Is Sylvia Essay Both poems are written by William Shakespeare. They originate from two different sources. One is part of a play, Two Gentlemen of Verona. The other is a poem found in a bundle with various other poems written by Shakespeare. The poems have the same theme, as love and infatuation are the main topics. Their purpose is to portray a person in such a way that the reader can visualize the topic and enter into the writer’s experience. The song ‘Why is Sylvia’ is organized into three five-line stanzas. Each of the stanzas uses the rhyme scheme of ABABA within. While you might, at a glance, note the ‘-ings’ in all five lines of the third stanza. The A lines are a simple ‘-ing’, while the B lines are ‘-elling’ endings. ‘Sonnet 130’ is not divided into stanzas, but still uses the rhyme scheme of ABAB. Although, not entirely throughout the poem. The last two sentences rhyme and therefore do not follow the rhyme scheme. ‘Sonnet 130’ is written in the first person. This is quite logical, because the writer describes his own lover. In this way, you get to know his personal feelings from his own perspective. ‘Who is Sylvia’ is not written in the first person. It is written in the third person. The writer discusses the characteristics of Sylvia. He constantly uses the words ‘she’ or ‘Sylvia’. The tone set in the poem, which is admiring and weighing, is created to let the reader wonder about all the characteristics of Sylvia. Shakespeare has a positive view on Sylvia, but still he has a doubtful edge. ‘Sonnet 130’ starts with an unexpected tone. He emphasizes all her imperfections. Although, he ends his poem with a comment showing he loves her despite everything. ‘Who is Sylvia’ was written during the Renaissance. The writing during the Renaissance had typical influences of the author’s personal life. Therefore, we could conclude that ‘Who is Sylvia’ could be based on his own experiences. In most poems with a theme including love has references to the perfection of his or her loved one. In ‘Sonnet 130’, these references to such objects of perfection are indeed present, but they are there to illustrate that his lover is not as beautiful. In every line he makes a comparison, mostly by using metaphors, of his lover to something seen perfect in his eyes. â€Å"Coral is far more red than her lips red†, â€Å"If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head† and â€Å"And in some perfumes is there more delight than in the breath that from my mistress reeks†. He says that her lips are not red enough and that even coral is a brighter red than her lips. If hairs would be wires, hers would be black and not golden. Furthermore, he tells us that her breath is not as pleasant as he would have hoped for. These are all examples of his comparisons involving his mistress. In the first line, he uses a simile in his comparison, â€Å"My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun†. They are not very pleasing and so not following the classic Italian sonnet structure used by Petrach. Shakespeare ends his sonnet by proclaiming his love for his mistress despite all of her ‘defaults’. This is when he embraces the theme in Petrarch’s sonnets, which is total and consuming love. Shakespeare uses a new structure in ‘Sonnet 130’, through which the straightforward theme of his lover’s simplicity is portrayed in three quatrains and neatly concluded in the final couplet. Shakespeare is using many techniques available, including the strict rules of the sonnet structure itself. His sonnet consists out of fourteen lines printed as a whole. However, by using the rhyme scheme (ABABCDCDEFEFGG) his sonnet consists out of three quatrains and one distich. The last two lines give the conclusion of the sonnet.

Alcohol abuse Essay Example for Free

Alcohol abuse Essay Alcohol is absorbed from all parts of the gastrointestinal tract largely by simple diffusion into the blood. However the small intestine is by far the most efficient region of the gastrointestinal tract for alcohol absorption because of its very large surface area. In a fasting individual, it is generally agreed that 10% to 20% of a dose of alcohol is absorbed from the stomach (the volume of alcohol affects the absorption) and 75% to 80% is absorbed from the small intestine. Because of this peak blood alcohol concentrations are achieved in fasting people within 0. 5 to 2. 0 hours, (average 0. 75 1. 35 hours depending upon dose and time of last meal) while non-fasting people exhibit peak alcohol concentrations within 1. 0, and in extreme cases up to as much as 4. 0 hours (average 1. 06 2. 12 hours). Because it is distributed so quickly and thoroughly the alcohol can affect the central nervous system even in small concentrations. In low concentrations, alcohol reduces inhibitions. As blood alcohol concentration increases, a persons response to stimuli decreases markedly, speech becomes slurred, and he or she becomes unsteady and has trouble walking. With very high concentrations greater than 0. 35 grams/100 milliliters of blood (equivalent to 0. 35 grams/210 liters of breath ) a person can become comatose and die. The American Medical Association has defined the blood alcohol concentration level of impairment for all people to be 0. 04 grams/100 milliliters of blood (equivalent to . 04 grams/210 liters of breath). The following is a generally accepted guide to the effects of alcohol. Distribution Alcohol has a high affinity for water and is therefore found in body tissues and fluids inasmuch as they contain water. Absorbed alcohol is rapidly carried throughout the body in the blood and once absorption of alcohol is complete an equilibrium occurs such that blood at all points in the system contains approximately the same concentration of alcohol. Elimination The liver is responsible for the elimination through metabolism of 95% of ingested alcohol from the body. The remainder of the alcohol is eliminated through excretion of alcohol in breath, urine, sweat, feces, milk and saliva. The body uses several different metabolic pathways in its oxidation of alcohol to acetaldehyde to acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water. Healthy people metabolize alcohol at a fairly consistent rate. As a rule of thumb, a person will eliminate one average drink or . 5 oz (15 ml) of alcohol per hour. Several factors influence this rate. The rate of elimination tends to be higher when the blood alcohol concentration in the body is very high. Also chronic alcoholics may (depending on liver health) metabolize alcohol at a significantly higher rate than the average. Finally, the bodys ability to metabolize alcohol quickly tend to diminish with age. Body Weight and Body Type In general, the less you weigh the more you will be affected by a given amount of alcohol. As detailed above, alcohol has a high affinity for water. Basically ones blood alcohol concentration is a function of the total amount of alcohol in ones system divided by total body water. So for two individuals with similar body compositions and different weights, the larger individual will achieve lower alcohol concentrations than the smaller one if ingesting the same amount of alcohol. However, for people of the same weight, a well muscled individual will be less affected than someone with a higher percentage of fat since fatty tissue does not contain very much water and will not absorb very much alcohol. Rate Of Consumption Blood alcohol concentration depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the rate at which the users body metabolizes alcohol. Because the body metabolizes alcohol at a fairly constant rate (somewhat more quickly at higher and lower alcohol concentrations), ingesting alcohol at a rate higher than the rate of elimination results in a cumulative effect and an increasing blood alcohol concentration. Alcohol Content Its not how many drinks that you have, but how much alcohol that you consume. The concentration of the drinks that one ingest can have a slight effect on the peak alcohol concentration due to the differences in absorption rate of different concentrations of alcohol. Alcohol is most rapidly absorbed when the concentration of the drink is between 10% and 30%. Below 10% the concentration gradient in the gastrointestinal tract is low and slows absorption and the added volumes of liquid involved slow gastric emptying. On the other hand concentrations higher than 30% tend to irritate the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract and the pyloric sphincter, causing increased secretion of mucous and delayed gastric emptying. Food Food taken along with alcohol results in a lower, delayed blood alcohol concentration peak (the point of greatest intoxication). There are two major factors involved in this phenomenon. First, because alcohol is absorbed most efficiently in the small intestine, the ingestion of food can slow down the absorption of alcohol into ones system. The pyloric valve at the bottom of the stomach will close in order to hold food in the stomach for digestion and thus keep the alcohol from reaching the small intestine. While alcohol will be absorbed from the stomach it is a slower and less efficient transition. Second and equally important is the fact that alcohol elimination rates are inversely proportional to alcohol concentration in the blood. Therefore the suppressed levels of alcohol due to food ingestion cause the body to eliminate the alcohol that is absorbed at a faster rate. The type of food ingested (carbohydrate, fat, protein) has not been shown to have a measurable influence on this affect but the larger the meal and closer in time between eating and drinking, the greater the diminution of peak alcohol concentration. Studies have shown reductions in peak alcohol concentration (as opposed to those of a fasting individual under otherwise similar circumstances) of 9% to 23%. Medication If you are taking any medication, it could increase the effects of alcohol. You should always consult your physician or the medical information that accompanies the medication when drinking alcohol in conjunction with any medication. Fatigue Fatigue causes many of the same symptoms that are caused by alcohol intoxication. These and other symptoms will be amplified if alcohol intoxication is concurrent with fatigue. Tolerance Tolerance is the diminution of the effectiveness of a drug after a period of prolonged or heavy use of that drug or a related drug (cross-tolerance). There are at least two types of tolerance at work with alcohol. The first is metabolic tolerance in which the alcohol is metabolized at a higher rate (up to two times as quickly) in chronic users. Because of the higher metabolic rate for alcohol lower peak blood alcohol concentrations are achieved by chronic alcohol users than the average drinker when the same amount of alcohol is ingested. The second is functional tolerance in which there is an actual change in the organ or systems sensitivity to the drug. Studies have shown that chronic alcohol users can have twice the tolerance for alcohol as an average person. It is important to note however that even in light of these tolerance factors, it has been shown conclusively that even in heavy alcohol users functional impairment is clearly measurable at the blood alcohol concentration levels that are currently used for traffic law enforcement and safety sensitive job performance. Gender Differences As outlined above in the section on Body Weight and Body Type different body types coincide with different body water percentages. In general, but by no means in all cases, women tend to have a higher percentage of body fat and thus a lower percentage of body water. Therefore, in general, if a man and a woman of the same weight ingest the same amount of alcohol the woman will tend to achieve a higher alcohol concentration. This, of course, would not be true if the woman was very fit and the man was somewhat obese, but on average, this is the case. Furthermore, total body water tends to decrease with age, so an older person will also be more affected by the same amount of alcohol. According to the table below the differences in alcohol concentration due to average body composition differences based on gender would be between 16% and 10% depending on age. ________________________________________ Average Total Body Water as a function of Sex and Age AgeMaleFemale 18 to 4061%52% over 6051%46% ________________________________________ Another gender based difference is in the elimination of alcohol. Although not explained, studies appear to show that women eliminate alcohol from their bodies at a rate 10% greater than that of men. Alcoholism and alcohol abuse Alcoholism (alcohol dependence) and alcohol abuse are two different forms of problem drinking. †¢Alcoholism is when you have signs of physical addiction to alcohol and continues to drink, despite problems with physical health, mental health, and social, family, or job responsibilities. Alcohol may control your life and relationships. †¢Alcohol abuse is when your drinking leads to problems, but not physical addiction. Causes, incidence, and risk factors There is no known cause of alcohol abuse or alcoholism. Research suggests that certain genes may increase the risk of alcoholism, but which genes and how they work are not known. How much you drink can influence your chances of becoming dependent. Those at risk for developing alcoholism include: †¢Men who have 15 or more drinks a week †¢Women who have 12 or more drinks a week †¢Anyone who has five or more drinks per occasion at least once a week One drink is defined as a 12-ounce bottle of beer, a 5-ounce glass of wine, or a 1 1/2-ounce shot of liquor. You have an increased risk for alcohol abuse and dependence if you have a parent with alcoholism. You may also be more likely to abuse alcohol or become dependent if you: †¢Are a young adult under peer pressure †¢Have depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, or schizophrenia †¢Have easy access to alcohol †¢Have low self-esteem †¢Have problems with relationships †¢Live a stressful lifestyle †¢Live in a culture alcohol use is more common and accepted Alcohol abuse is rising. Around 1 out of 6 people in the world have a drinking problem. Symptoms People who have alcoholism or alcohol abuse often: †¢Continue to drink, even when health, work, or family are being harmed †¢Drink alone. †¢Become violent when drinking †¢Become hostile when asked about drinking †¢Are not able to control drinking being unable to stop or reduce alcohol intake †¢Make excuses to drink †¢Miss work or school, or have a decrease in performance because of drinking †¢Stop taking part in activities because of alcohol †¢Need to use alcohol on most days to get through the day †¢Neglect to eat or eat poorly †¢Do not care about or ignore how they dress or whether they are clean †¢Try to hide alcohol use †¢Shake in the morning or after periods when they have not a drink Symptoms of alcohol dependence include: †¢Memory lapses after heavy drinking †¢Needing more and more alcohol to feel drunk †¢Alcohol withdrawal symptoms when you havent had a drink for a while †¢Alcohol-related illnesses such as alcoholic liver disease Signs and tests The health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your medical and family history, including use of alcohol. The following questions are used by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to screen for alcohol abuse or dependence: †¢Do you ever drive when you have been drinking? †¢Do you have to drink more than before to get drunk or feel the desired effect? †¢Have you felt that you should cut down on your drinking? †¢Have you ever had any blackouts after drinking? †¢Have you ever missed work or lost a job because of drinking? †¢Is someone in your family worried about your drinking? Tests that may be done include: †¢Blood alcohol level (this can tell whether someone has recently been drinking alcohol, but it does not necessarily confirm alcoholism) †¢Complete blood count (CBC) †¢Liver function tests. †¢Magnesium blood test Medical Illness Associated With Chronic Alcohol Abuse DisorderIllness MetabolicAlcoholic ketoacidosis, alcoholic hypoglycemia, water and salt disorders NeurologicChronic problems with thinking such as Wernickes encephalopathy and Korsakoffs psychosis, alcoholic cerebellar degeneration, and central pontine myelinolysis leading to problems walking and other motor activities, acute and chronic dementia, alcoholic peripheral neuropathy MuscularAcute and chronic alcoholic muscle weakness. GastrointestinalFatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, alcoholic cirrhosis, alcoholic pancreatitis, poor pancreatic function, gastroesophageal reflux, esophageal carcinoma, erosive gastritis, chronic diarrhea, malabsorption, esophageal varices leading to bleeding into the GI tract Metabolic-endocrineHigh cholesterol, high levels of uric acid, low testosterone levels, impotence, testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, irregular menstrual periods, reversible Cushings syndrome BloodAnemia due to poor production of blood cells or slow intestinal bleeding, poor white cell production, destruction of platelets, blood too thin to clot properly. CardiacDecreased cardiac function, arrhythmias, dilated cardiomyopathy, high blood pressure PulmonaryIncreased incidence of pneumonia, increased incidence of tuberculosis OtherIncreased incidence of severe intestinal infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, vitamin deficiency syndromes, trauma, sexual dysfunction, insomnia Social Problems Associated With Alcohol Abuse Accidental death and injury50% of fatal car crashes 25-fold increased risk of falls or drowning 50% of fire-related burns or deaths 20% to 30% of trauma seen in emergency rooms. CrimeFrequently involved in violent crime SuicideInvolved in up to 35% of suicides Economic cost$148 billion annually (estimated); 15% for health care and treatment OtherAssociated with increased rates of spouse or child abuse and increased spread of sexually transmitted diseases Treatment Completely stopping the use of alcohol is the ideal goal of treatment. This is called abstinence. A strong social network and family support are important in achieving this. Completely stopping and avoiding alcohol is difficult for many people with alcoholism. There will be times when it is difficult. You should aim to avoid drinking for as long as possible. Some people who abuse alcohol may be able to simply reduce the amount they drink. This is called drinking in moderation. If this method does not work, you should try to quit drinking completely. DECIDING TO QUIT Many people with alcohol problems do not recognize when their drinking gets out of hand. The ideal approach to treatment is to help the person realize how much their alcohol use is harming their life and those around them. Studies find that more people with alcohol problems opt for treatment when their family members or employers are honest with them about their concerns, and try to help them see that drinking is preventing them from reaching their goals. Withdrawal from alcohol is best done in a controlled, supervised setting. Complications from withdrawal can be life threatening. For more information, see: Alcohol withdrawal Your health care provider should order blood and urine tests to check for health problems that are common in people who abuse alcohol. LONG-TERM SUPPORT Alcohol recovery or support programs can help you stop drinking completely. These programs usually offer: †¢Counseling and therapy to discuss alcoholism and its effects and how to control your thoughts and behaviors †¢Mental health support †¢Medical care You may be treated in a special recovery center (inpatient), or you may attend a program while you live at home (outpatient). Medications are sometimes prescribed to prevent you from drinking again. †¢Acamprosate is a drug that has been shown to lower relapse rates in those who are alcohol dependent. †¢Disulfiram (Antabuse) produces very unpleasant side effects if you drink even a small amount of alcohol within 2 weeks after taking the drug. †¢Naltrexone (Vivitrol) decreases alcohol cravings. It is available in an injectable form. You cannot take these medications if you are pregnant or have certain medical conditions. The medications are often used with long-term treatment with counseling or support groups. Depression or other mood or anxiety disorders may be noticed after you stop drinking. These should be promptly treated. It is important that the patient has a living situation that supports their need to avoid alcohol. Some programs offer housing options for people with alcoholism or alcohol abuse. Support Groups Support groups are available to help people who are dealing with alcoholism. ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA) Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a self-help group of recovering alcoholics that offers emotional support and specific steps for people recovering from alcohol dependence. The program is commonly called a 12-step approach. There are local chapters throughout the United States. AA offers help 24 hours a day and teaches that it is possible to participate in social functions without drinking. AL-ANON Family members of a person with an alcohol abuse problem often need counseling. Al-Anon is a support group for partners and others who are affected by someone elses alcoholism. Alateen provides support for teenage children of people with alcoholism. OTHER SUPPORT GROUPS Several other support groups are available. †¢SMART recovery teaches you have to change your thoughts and behaviors to help people with alcoholism recover. †¢LifeRing recovery and SOS are two nonreligious programs that offer support for people with alcohol abuse. †¢Women for Sobriety is a self-help group just for women. Moderation Management is a program for those who want to reduce how much they drink. It recommends abstinence for people who cannot do this. Expectations (prognosis) How well a person with alcoholism or alcohol abuse does depends on whether or not they can stop drinking. Alcoholism is a major social, economic, and public health problem. Problem drinking can affect every part of a persons life. If you have an alcohol problem, abstinence can help improve your mental and physical health and possibly, your relationships. Treatment programs can help you quit. However, drinking again after treatment is common. It is important to have a good support system. Complications Alcoholism and alcohol abuse can increase your risk of many health problems, including: †¢Bleeding in the digestive tract †¢Brain cell damage †¢Brain disorder called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome †¢Cancer of the esophagus, liver, colon, and other areas †¢Changes in the menstrual cycle (period) †¢Delirium tremens (DTs) †¢Dementia and memory loss †¢Depression and suicide †¢Erectile dysfunction †¢Heart damage †¢High blood pressure. †¢Inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis) †¢Liver disease, including cirrhosis †¢Nerve damage †¢Poor nutrition †¢Sleeping problems (insomnia) Alcohol use also increases your risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and violence. Drinking alcohol while you are pregnant can lead to severe birth defects in the baby. Prevention The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism recommends: †¢Women should not drink more than 1 drink per day †¢Men should not drink more than 2 drinks per day One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1? ounces of liquor.

Cognitive Development and Language Development

Cognitive Development and Language Development What roles do nature and nurture play in children’s language development? Within this essay I am going to be looking at whether I think, nature or nurture has the greatest impact on human development, referring to cognitive development and language development. By looking at what different theorists from the human development field have discovered, I will come to the conclusion whether nature or nurture wins this debate. I will start off by explaining some of the key terms that I will be using, making it easier for myself to reference back to when needed. I will then move onto my first area of human development, which is cognitive development, and discuss the nature/nativist theories and the nurture/empiricist theories. By talking about a few different key issues, I will then focus on one main theorist for each. Then, moving on to the second area of human development; language development, I will do the same thing again. By starting off looking at the different nativist theories, and then focusing on one main theorist, and then looking into the empiricist theories, and focusing on one main theorist. After having looked at all the different views I will be able to conclude on whether I think nature or nurture has the greatest impact on human development. Some of the key terms which will assist me in this essay are: Cognition is basically the mental activities that are associated with thinking, knowing and remembering; any ideas and thoughts that a person has, or memories that are stored are all different types of cognitive processes. Reading and learning is also a type of cognition. Development can either be qualitative or quantitative. It can be qualitative in the sense that you cant measure the change, but the change is still noticeable. You can develop quantitatively by an increase in height or weight etc. Patterns of change over time which begin at conception and continue throughout the life span (Keenan, 2006). Cognitive Developmental Theory, which consists of many different theories, but I will start off by referring to Piagets Cognitive Development Theory. In Piagets theory of cognitive development, is a stage theory which consists of different stages of development. Within each stage of development, children are put before challenging situations which they must then deal with and overcome through their own abilities. After completing the challenge the child is then able to move on to the next stage of cognitive development. Learningis when there is a change in behaviour or knowledge which has developed from previous experiences or training. The learning process could be innate, meaning that we are born with the knowledge, or it has been obtained through daily life. Hence, any knowledge or behaviour that we are now in hold of that we were not born with, was somehow learned. This has been studied by psychologists in many ways, Pavlov with his associative learning; he examined the salivation of dogs in response to meat powder; to Skinner with his reinforcement theory, that a learner will only repeat the desired behaviour if the behaviour is followed by positive reinforcement; rats press a lever in the quest of gaining some kind of reward. Language is something that we use in everyday lives. Theoretically, language is a formal system of communication which involves a combination of words and/or symbols, whether written or spoken. It is not necessary for another organism to comprehend the language, for it to actually be a language just that it meets the description given. Language Development is a process which starts early in human life, that begins when a person starts to acquire language by learning as it is spoken or by mimicking the person. By four months of age, babies are able to read lips and distinguish between different speech sounds. Language usually starts off as meaningless words by simply recalling what others are saying, but as a child grows, the words begin to acquire meaning creating connections between words being formed. As a person gets older, new meanings and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned. Nature is the genetics you receive, its something you have ever since you were born, e.g. eye colour. It is something that cannot be influenced by others. Nurture is the effect that the people in your life have on you, and the environment you are in. It is things that have influenced you whilst growing up, e.g. the media or values taught by your parents. Nature-Nurture is known to be one of the longest running debates; whether its or genes (nature) or our experiences (nurture) that make us who we are? E.g. If a person commits a violent crime, did they do so because of their genetic makeup (they are genetically pre-wired to be violent) or because of their experiences (e.g., growing up in an impoverished area, not getting a good education, no parental guidance or some other experience)? This is the nature-nurture debate. Child development is a discipline which aims to identify, to describe and to predict patterns in childrens growth where growth includes intellectual (or cognitive), linguistic, physical, social, behavioural and emotional development. (Smidt, 2006), (ARU, 2009) The key theories that are mainly acknowledged within cognitive development include The Stage Theory, carried out by Piaget (nativist), and Scaffolding by Bruner (empiricist). Piaget (1896-1980) researched into childrens learning and believed that they go through stages and learn in sequences when growing up. He thought that children were active learners and that they used their past experiences as their knowledge for the world and how to deal with previously experienced situations. Piagets theory was first published in 1952, which came from his observation of children, including his own, whom he observed in a natural environment. He imagined that a childs knowledge was composed of schemas; knowledge which is used to organise previous experiences, which is referred back to when trying to understand new ones. Piagets theory states that cognitive development occurs in four stages, in which when they begin to take place, they follow the same order; you are only able to move onto the next stage once the previous stage has been completed. The four stages are: Researchers have found that the advanced memory skills in children, mainly in the Formal Operational Stage, are due to memorisation techniques, such as repeating things in hope of memorising them, or categorising them, making it easier to pick out the information in future. Vygotsky (1978) states: Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. His theories were a mix of both nativist and empiricist views. One of Vygotskys central ideas was the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the difference between the level of potential development and the actual development in a child. He emphasised how social interaction was vital for develo pment from the beginning of their lives. He declared that before becoming internal, a function must go through a social stage when developing. Therefore, it is initially social, and then becomes an internal function which is known as internalisation (Vygotsky, 1962). The empiricist views would include Vygotskys theory on the role of culture and social interaction. He stated that socio-cultural environment was important for cognitive development. Being able to experience different contexts creates different forms of development; cognitive processes such as thoughts and your imagination develop through social interaction. The matter of social interaction relates back to ZPD, as communicating with other people develops your knowledge further. Bruner (1915- ) developed further on Vygotskys early work, and came up with Scaffolding, which was outlining how an adult assists a child in learning. Adults can aid children to move from where they are, to where they want to go. This is only possible if the child is interested in the situation initially, then they are able to be supported by the adult to further their learning. This is demonstrated in 5 stages, shown in the table below: (ARU, 2009) When an adult is assisting a child they are using previous experiences as their knowledge to do so. This is known as the Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory, in which recall is processed in 3 ways. The Enactive Mode, is when things are represented by doing them, the process used to get to the end product. The Iconic Mode is when children are encouraged to record their experiences, therefore making them more memorable. Lastly, the Symbolic Mode, which is where children use symbols and codes to represent and specify the meaning of what they are trying to represent. E.g. writing the number 5 instead of writing five; its a symbol representing the number. Skinner (1905-1990) is another example, who has practiced the importance of empirical learning in development. According to him, learning is characterised by the way a person processes their behaviour, which is then shaped into an experience. He doesnt completely eliminate the role of innate factors, but does argue that the external environment has a higher influence on development. Skinner suggested that if a person is positively reinforced (rewarded) for carrying out a certain action, they are more likely to repeat it again and recall it as a good experience. If a child was to be negatively reinforced (punished) they are highly likely not to repeat the behaviour again as they dont want to be punished, therefore remembering it as a bad experience. I believe that a person has to experience an event physically for them to be able to remember it better and recall it. Therefore, the environment plays a crucial role in cognitive development as it gives you knowledge of whether something is right or wrong, and then this experience is moved into the innate as a memory. Like Skinner suggested, before carrying out an action the child will remember the last time they carried it out, how they had approached the task set ahead of them then, what they have learnt since then, and how they can improve on it now with their recent learning; hence the social interaction has led the child to think back using their innate memory. Cognitive development requires both nativist and empiricist approaches to help a child develop their learning. The key theories that are mainly acknowledged within language development include Chomskys Language Acquisition Device, Skinners Reinforcement and Banduras Social Learning Theory (SLT). The nativist theory deals with language being an innate feature of a child. Chomsky (1928- ) promotes this theory and came up with his own Language Acquisition Device (LAD). He declared that the ability to learn language is inborn, suggesting that nature is more important than nurture. His work contributed to the thought that childrens language development is more complex than what is declared by behaviourists, who believe that children can learn language by being rewarded for imitating. However, Chomskys theory does not take into account the influence that cognition and language have on each others development. Nativists believe that if children surrounded by poverty, and brought up in a poverty constricted environment, children are still learning to speak due to their language acquisition device. Th is leads them to believe that the study of learning focuses on events that can be observed and measured. Empiricist views of Skinner and Watson, shows that they believed that children come into this world as a blank slate. Therefore, meaning that when a child is born, they have no knowledge at all, and are incapable of doing or knowing anything. They believe that this theory applies to all species. Behaviourist views like this suggest that the role of the environment is vital, and that the process of learning is only successful if there has been a change in behaviour. Moving onto Banduras (1924- ) Social Learning Theory, which suggests people learn from one another by observing their actions and imitating them. This theory is known to be a link between nativist and empiricist views as nativist learning is needed when trying to memorise what you are seeing and embarking on motivation. Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a gui de for action (Bandura). The conditions which are necessary for this model to take place include, Attention, there are various points which will either increase or decrease the amount of attention you are paying to a situation. This could relate back to Skinner and his Reinforcement theory. Retention, being the second condition, is remembering what you were paying attention to. This can be remembered in different ways such as, images, symbols, coding, or just rehearsing. Reproduction, is being able to reproduce the image, which then leads to Motivation, which occurs when you have a good reason to imitate the previous sequence. Other reasons for this motivation may be incentives, or the speculation enforced by the reinforcement theory. Skinner suggested that the associations between a stimuli and the response could explain the behaviour and interaction of a being. He tried to apply his Operant Conditioning to the way language is learnt. The probability of a verbal response was contin gent on four things: reinforcement, stimulus control, deprivation, and aversive stimulation. The interaction of these things in a childs environment would lead to particular associations, the basis of all language (Skinner 1957). I believe that nurture, is a more effective form of language development. This is because language is a gradual process; you need to go through various stages of development until you are at a level of individual learning. By watching what an adult is doing, at a young age you observe them and imitate them. Its like watching a carer and a baby having a conversation; CARER: Hello, what are you doing? BABY: (babbles) When talking to the baby, theyll try and converse back, and as they grow older they learn words and their meanings and are able to create sentences. This all comes from some form of social interaction. The nature side of things is important in this matter too as; once a child has learnt a word, it needs to be stored and recalled again when needed to. Therefore, both nature and nurture work together in an effort to create language development. To conclude overall, I believe that both nature and nurture play a vital role in the development of cognitive and language development. The nurture may come first at times to experience the situation or process, which you then will remember and will store it, and then when needed to use again the experience becomes innate and is remembered through the cognition of your brain, becoming your nature. There are many studies that have been carried out to prove that nurture is more vital in the development of these processes, but from my point of view, I dont think there is as much information available on the nature side of things as there is on nurture. There are well known nature theorists out known, taking Piaget for example, but nature theories need to be backed up more strongly with more research being carried out. Reinforcement plays a big role in no matter what you do, if you are negatively reinforced towards a situation, you are likely to not want to go through it again and put th at experience at the back of your mind; but still have it in your memory for you to be reminded to not recreate the scenario. The nature-nurture debate has been studied over for many years, and will probably continue to be for many more years to come; but this is strong debate which I believe works together as a pair, and the one needs the other for it to be able to function appropriately. REFERENCES: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development (2009). Theory of Cognitive Development. Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/cognitive-development. Last accessed 13 December 2009. (2008). Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget). Available: http://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive-development.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. (2004). Cognitive Development In Children. Available: http://allpsych.com/psychology101/development.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. Verenikina,A. Understanding Scaffolding and the ZPD in Educational Research. Available: http://www.aare.edu.au/03pap/ver03682.pdf. Last accessed 13 December 2009. Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. The Nativist Theory. Available: http://language11.tripod.com/id9.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. (2009). Developing language for life. Available: http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/talktoyourbaby/theories.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. (2009). Nature Versus Nurture. Available: http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1913/Developmental-Theory.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. (2008). Social Learning Theory (Bandura). Available: http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html. Last accessed 13 December 2009. Oates,J Grayson,A. 2004. Cognitive and language development in children. Open University : Blackwell BF Skinner, Behavioralism, Language Behavior. Available: http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2003/cogrev_skinner.htm. Last accessed 14 December 2009.

Investigation into Chair Design Essay examples -- essays papers

Investigation into Chair Design For my Investigation into chair designs I choose to investigate how simplistic and basic the chairs have become. From Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who was renowned for his style and applied decoration to Philippe Stark who has taken simplistic to another level. I have investigated how the designers have used applied decoration to enhance the look of their chair, to how functional the pieces are (or in some cases un-functional! ). HIGH BACKED CHAIR - CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH - 1902 Mackintosh produced designs on a whole range of furnishings as well as his architectural designs. Many of these were purely functional but he also produced many ‘artistic’ pieces throughout his life. Because of the large amount of applied decoration on Macintosh’s pieces that it could be argued that each piece is a finely detailed work of art itself. Probably the most famous of such pieces are his famous high backed chairs. The high backed chair I have chosen to study was made for the International Exhibition of modern Decorative Art, held in Turin in Italy in 1902 The chair appears to have a very low seat, being only a quarter of the height of the actual chair, this also may perhaps be due to the fact the seat is fairly broad at the front, widening out from a fairly narrow back. The back of the chair is as wide as the back of the seat but tapers towards the top. This main support is framed with two tall slim struts. The construction of the low seat and tapering back makes the chair look almost abstract because of these bizarre proportions. In the photograph it looks as if the picture has been taken from a strange angle which has distorted the shape. There is little in the way of applied decoration on the chair except for the back, which on a portion is padded and covered in a light blue-grey colour. On this is a painted stylised rose bush design that fills the width of the padded portion. Beneath this is what appears to be wilting petals falling from the bush. At the top of the chair carved into a piece of wood is an organic form of sorts with the typical Art Nouveau whiplash stretching the length of it. Mackintosh was renowned for his stylised design - taking the natural form of something, for example a flower, and altering it to fit his style - this could possibly be a very developed stylised design Against the white wood work of this desi... ...d in adds plentiful character to the chair. The function of this chair is to be ‘fun’, to add character to someone’s dining room and I think that this chair would look good in any room regardless of the decor. From this investigation I was surprised by the range of different styles and forms that a chair could take. I enjoyed the form of the God Raysse, but my favourite would have to be the Pepe Chair by far due to its larger than life personality. From the ‘classic’, ‘traditional’ designers like Macintosh who revolutionised and popularised the style of Art Nouveau and to this day still has an impact and influence on designers world wide whether it be on furniture, windows or clothes, to modern designers who have also revolutionised the ‘simplistic’ style making it take many forms from ‘drips’ to ‘giraffes’. For instance the Pepe Chair took the high backed chair and gave it a modern day simplistic twist. Who knows where our rears shall sit in years to come? Shall we be sitting on more simplistic designs than the ones I have used as examples in this investigation or pieces complex beyond the imagination. Who knows? We shall just have to wait and see where our bums shall lead us! Investigation into Chair Design Essay examples -- essays papers Investigation into Chair Design For my Investigation into chair designs I choose to investigate how simplistic and basic the chairs have become. From Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who was renowned for his style and applied decoration to Philippe Stark who has taken simplistic to another level. I have investigated how the designers have used applied decoration to enhance the look of their chair, to how functional the pieces are (or in some cases un-functional! ). HIGH BACKED CHAIR - CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH - 1902 Mackintosh produced designs on a whole range of furnishings as well as his architectural designs. Many of these were purely functional but he also produced many ‘artistic’ pieces throughout his life. Because of the large amount of applied decoration on Macintosh’s pieces that it could be argued that each piece is a finely detailed work of art itself. Probably the most famous of such pieces are his famous high backed chairs. The high backed chair I have chosen to study was made for the International Exhibition of modern Decorative Art, held in Turin in Italy in 1902 The chair appears to have a very low seat, being only a quarter of the height of the actual chair, this also may perhaps be due to the fact the seat is fairly broad at the front, widening out from a fairly narrow back. The back of the chair is as wide as the back of the seat but tapers towards the top. This main support is framed with two tall slim struts. The construction of the low seat and tapering back makes the chair look almost abstract because of these bizarre proportions. In the photograph it looks as if the picture has been taken from a strange angle which has distorted the shape. There is little in the way of applied decoration on the chair except for the back, which on a portion is padded and covered in a light blue-grey colour. On this is a painted stylised rose bush design that fills the width of the padded portion. Beneath this is what appears to be wilting petals falling from the bush. At the top of the chair carved into a piece of wood is an organic form of sorts with the typical Art Nouveau whiplash stretching the length of it. Mackintosh was renowned for his stylised design - taking the natural form of something, for example a flower, and altering it to fit his style - this could possibly be a very developed stylised design Against the white wood work of this desi... ...d in adds plentiful character to the chair. The function of this chair is to be ‘fun’, to add character to someone’s dining room and I think that this chair would look good in any room regardless of the decor. From this investigation I was surprised by the range of different styles and forms that a chair could take. I enjoyed the form of the God Raysse, but my favourite would have to be the Pepe Chair by far due to its larger than life personality. From the ‘classic’, ‘traditional’ designers like Macintosh who revolutionised and popularised the style of Art Nouveau and to this day still has an impact and influence on designers world wide whether it be on furniture, windows or clothes, to modern designers who have also revolutionised the ‘simplistic’ style making it take many forms from ‘drips’ to ‘giraffes’. For instance the Pepe Chair took the high backed chair and gave it a modern day simplistic twist. Who knows where our rears shall sit in years to come? Shall we be sitting on more simplistic designs than the ones I have used as examples in this investigation or pieces complex beyond the imagination. Who knows? We shall just have to wait and see where our bums shall lead us!

The Cold War Essay -- History, The Communist Bloc

At the conclusion of World War II, the United States of America emerged as the savior of Europe and became one of the leading global political powers of the subsequent age. Behind the â€Å"iron curtain† of Easter Europe, however, another superpower, the Soviet Union, which was seemingly the exact opposite of the United States in every way imaginable, exerted its force to instill and defend communism in its surrounding satellite states. The ideologies of these two countries displayed myriad incompatibilities, and over a period spanning the next four decades, the Soviet Union and the United States of America attempted to gain military, political, and social advantages over each other in order to preserve their systems of life. Especially with the advent of nuclear weapons and warfare, both of these nations saw the other as a perilous threat not only to the continuation of the ideals of democracy in America and Communism in The Soviet Union, but also to the lives of their inn ocent civilians. Countless numbers of historians have argued over the question of which superpower initiated the conflict, which Walter Lippmann coined â€Å"The Cold War† in his book of the same title, but a consensus has not yet been reached. In general, however, the events of the Cold War, which thankfully did not result in a military conflict, followed a specific pattern: The United States’ paranoia over the expansion of the Communist bloc encouraged them to develop new weapons and exert their influence in numerous struggles in Europe, Asia and the Middle East. The Soviets, seeing this American initiative as a threat, also escalated their weapons and military programs. Essentially, the origins of the Cold War can be traced back to the Russian Revolution of ... ...ation out, but rather those who have had all the benefits that the wealthiest nation on earth has had to offer (Newman and Schmalbach 588). Due to this influx of anti-communist paranoia, the Loyalty Review Board, which performed investigations and background checks on over three million federal workers, was created. Additionally, the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 outlawed citizens from supporting any form of totalitarian government, established restrictions for confessed Communists, and created detention camps for those who did not comply. Lastly, the Un-American Activities Committee, which was created in 1939 to find Nazis, was reactivated in the forties to do the same for Communists. As already mentioned, paranoia was so hectic that this organization searched for Communists in the Boy Scouts and in the Hollywood industry (Newman and Schmalbach 559).

Use of Mise en Scene in the Chen Kaiges Movie Yellow Earth :: Movie Film Essays

Use of Mise en Scene in the Chen Kaige's Movie Yellow Earth The movie Yellow Earth by Chen Kaige utilizes mise en scene to encompass the full power of the messages that are being sent throughout the movie. By allotting the abundant use of mise en scene instead of montages, the audience is better able to grasp the in depth of the struggles in the film. Using montages would take away from the surroundings, due to the quick shots adding various scenes together to create a meaningful message, which would be lost in the editing. Most audiences would never grasp the overwhelming landscape unless seen in a continuous mise en scene shot. When the soldier (Gu) helps Hanhan and the father plow the fields, the audience gains a sense for the surroundings. We are better able to understand how the surroundings may be a haven of sorts, yet at the same time act as the entrapment that these people have to cope with. The land is magnificent and imposing, giving a sense of space and freedom, yet at the same time completely trapping the people in a noman’ s land, with no way out. The land provides for its people, yet at the same time they are its mercy. (Rottentomatoes.com) One of the most powerful scenes in the movie, is when Qiaocui learns the plans for her wedding. The scene is introduced with the father talking to a woman, Qiaocui enters the house and the woman leaves. The shot encompasses both father and daughter as the father tells Qiaucui about her upcoming wedding. As he continues to talk the camera focuses on Qiaucui – even though her father is the speaker. This is an overwhelming moment for the girl, which we are able to see through the reaction in her eyes. The continuous shot of only Qiaucui allows the audience to understand the depth of her disappointment and suffering. This is a vital moment in her life, and thus allowing the focus to fully encompass her reaction gives her reaction that much more power.

Crash Human Nature Essay

* Human nature is The general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioural traits of humankind, regarded as shared by all humans. * Crash directed by Paul Haggis presents to us an intertwining story set within the streets of LA, confirming and challenging racial stereotypes and at the same time reflecting the ever existing good and dark side of human nature. * Human nature drives us all to view â€Å"the other† as bad, evil and untrustworthy, it is complex and every man, despite differences holds the underlying values buried deep into our subconsciousness * In the film crash, Haggis has successfully portrayed the truth about human nature through the conventions of dialogue, camera shot and symbolism, confusing us as viewers, but also giving us an intruging insight into the reality of each and every one of us despite differences in race and background. * Haggis has successfully evoked feelings of uneasiness, confusion, anger and empathy at through the making of the film crash. * Human nature drives us to fear the unknown, the â€Å"other† in our eyes is seen as evil and that we should steer away from any communication. It may be in relation to race, ethnicity, age, gender or beliefs but in reality each one of us does not have the ability to fight this automatic discrimination against those who are different. * Haggis has successfully reflected this dark aspect of human nature through the convention of dialogue. * In one scene a Persian man is attempting to purchase a gun from a white American. The salesman calls the man â€Å"osama† and then continues to talk about 9/11, he then is aggressively told to leave the shop. * The white American man displays his fear of â€Å"the other† by racially discriminating him through his dialogue, he has his own racist, stereotypical image of this man in his mind automatically relating him to 9/11 and due to his human nature sees him as â€Å"the other† and as untrustworthy to be in his shop telling him he â€Å"has no right to buy a gun here† * In another scene a Hispanic locksmith is changing a white American couples locks on their door after their car had been hijacked. The American woman makes assumptions that this locksmith is going to sell their key to his â€Å"homies† purely because of the way he looks and his race and demands to get her locks changed again in the morning. * The American woman views the locksmith as â€Å"the other† and due to her human nature she fears him, and does not trust him to be in her house. Her judgement is not on personality or individual traits it is based upon the automatic assumptions she makes about him due to his tattoos, dress sense and skin colour. Little does she know that the Hispanic locksmith was in many eyes the only character in crash seen as completely innocent, but due to her ignorance she believed the opposite. * Through dialogue Haggis has successfully positioned the viewer to feel anger at both of these scenarios and causes us to question our own human nature and our own classification of â€Å"the other†. We are positioned to feel guilt as we feel partly responsible for these racial stereotypes as we too, through our human nature, instinctively stick to our own. * Human nature is complex, values at polar opposites could exsist in the same man, particular beliefs could be compromised and in reality no one can ever truly understand the extent of complexities embedded within each person. * Racsim and nobility can exsist in the same man. Haggis has successfully portrayed this idea of human nature through the narrative conventions of camera shot and dialogue. * In one scene a cop pulls over a black couple, he abuses his power and shows extreme racism seen through the convention of low camera angle while he molests her. * In another scene the same cop shows nobility while is seen rescuing the same black woman he molested, he ironically says things to her such as â€Å"im not going to hurt you† * The camera angle in the first scene is a panning low angle displaying the police officers hand stroking up the womans leg, emphasizing his sickening racist actions. In the second scene the camera angle is a close camera angle focusing on his remorseful worrying facial expression. The shot of the hand in the first scene could represent â€Å"a mans hand† where the shot of his face in the second scene presents him, and therefore suggests that although his racism and dark side of his human nature exsists the good side of his human nature is a representation of his true identity and we begin to question the reasons behind his actions. * These two scenes In the movie crash display to us that humans are extremely complex. A man can live a life full of sin but then commit a noble act just as a man can be a criminal but then save a life. * The concept of human complexities is hard to grasp, an individuals identity can determine why they act a certain way or do certain things. The cop in the film displayed racism due to the fact that a black woman would not help his sick father, but does this excuse particular values and behaviours? * Through the convention of camera angle Haggis has effectively positioned the viewer to feel both disgust and awe at the same man. We begin to question what drives humans to be so complex and we wonder whether it is ever possible for a man to be seen as completely innocent. * Instinctively human natures drives us to protect and stick to our own, just as we repel those who are seen as different. * This universal value embedded inside each and every human is represented by Paul Haggis in the film crash through utlising the narrative convention of symbolism. * Crash follows the story of a Hispanic locksmith and unconditional love of his.